physics/9902044v2 25 Feb 1999
The Cause of Gravity
1. Introduction
Isaac Newton said that gravity is proportional to mass, (1) and Albert Einstein showed
that the gravity is expressed through the curvature of space. (2) Although these were both important advances in our understanding of gravity, neither
one addresses the cause of gravity. This article therefore proposes to identify
what causes the curving of space-time which is the expression of gravity, and to
incorporate gravity into a unified equation with matter and energy.
In his discussion about general relativity, Einstein said that gravity is the
same as any other acceleration, except that gravity's acceleration is caused by the
curving of space. (2) And this acceleration which is proportional to mass, of course implies that there
is a force at work. But it is obvious that mass is not a force. So mass can not
perform the work of warping space, and therefore mass itself cannot possible cause
gravity. However, since mass is proportional to gravity, and almost all mass is located
in the atomic nucleus, the search for the force which warps space and therefore causes
gravity, must begin within the nucleus of atoms.
2. The Strong Force
According to the Standard Model, protons and neutrons are each composed of three
quarks which are bound together by the strong nuclear force, and it is the strong
force which is therefore thought to provide matter with most of its mass. (3,5,9) So the strong force is proportional to mass, and mass is known to be proportional
to gravity. And this means that the strong force is also proportional to gravity.
Each atomic nucleus contains about 99.97 percent of the mass of the atom, so they
certainly contain most of the mass of matter. But the nucleus is 100,000 times smaller
than the diameter of the atom. (3) So it appears to be incongruously small for most of the mass of matter to be found
there. Since the strong force interacting with the electromagnetic force should
have the capability of imparting movements of near the speed of light, and the strong
force is also thought to impart most of the mass to nucleons, and since velocity near
the speed of light can cause both an increase in mass and a contraction of dimensions,
then it seems probable that all of these attributes are related. The strong force
exerted between quarks and nucleons, would thus appear to be caused by relativistic effects
which are comparable to velocities near the speed of light, which increases mass
and decreases or contracts the spatial dimensions of the atomic nucleus. And these
effects would be enacted through relativistic effects causing the formation of virtual
gluons, which are the exchanging particles through which quarks and nucleons interact.
Since all of space is interconnected, this slight contraction of space within
the nucleus, would spread out within the volume of the atom. And since the nuclear
diameter is so much smaller than the atomic diameter, this contraction of the nuclear
volume would be diluted within the atom by its much larger volume, and then would be radiated
into the space surrounding the atom. And as Einstein explained, gravity is expressed
in the curvature of space. (2) So the strong force acting on quarks and nucleons, results in a relativistic mass increase and a comparable dimensional contraction,
which is radiated into space surrounding the atom. But the insulating effects of
the atomic volume would reduce this effect by the time it could reach other atomic
nuclei. This is similar to the effect of the volume of the Earth, which effectively reduces
the force of gravity on a person at its surface due to the distance the volume imposes
from its center of gravity. And so this effect of an atom's volume insulating the effect of contracting nuclei on each other, would dilute the curvature of space,
and would be the effect we know as gravity.
If this is true, it would explain why gravity is proportional to mass, because
the mass of atoms and the contraction of space producing gravity would both be relativistic
effects within the atomic nucleus. And it would also explain why gravity is so weak, because its effect would be due to a contraction of the tiny atomic nucleus,
which is further reduced by the relatively large volume of the atom. And so the
reason why matter has to accumulate in such large amounts before the effect of gravity
is noticeable, would be due to the relatively small size of the nuclear contraction, and
the relatively large volume of atoms which keeps nuclei from interacting more directly.
If gravity is the end result of relativistic effects of repetitive oscillations
brought about by the strong force in nucleons, then gravity would not be a separate
force of nature as has been supposed. And since it would be the indirect effect
of another force, gravity would be expressed only as an indirect field effect, and thus
would have no quantum effect of its own. So there would be no separate particle
of interaction which carries gravity. And so, there would be no gravitons, because
gravity would be only a curvature of space comparable to the relativistic effects of motion.
And this would certainly explain why no gravitons have ever been found.
Velocity that is a significant fraction of the speed of light, whether linear,
rotational or some combination, must increase mass. Einstein gave the equation for
this increase as :
M = Mo/ (1-V^2/C^2) (13) E1
where Mo is the initial mass, V is velocity, C is the speed of light, and M is the amount
to which mass has been increased by the relativistic speed. (2) And space is inversely
proportional to relativistic velocity, as :
1/D = (1-V^2/C^2) E2
where D represents the dimensions. (2) Relativistic force must therefore cause an increase in mass and also a comparable
decrease in the spatial dimensions. And we know that gravity is proportional to
mass, so that when mass is increased, gravity must also be increased. Therefore
relativistic force which causes both an increase in mass and a contraction of space, would also
an increase in gravity, no matter what its cause. And it is therefore probable that
these phenomena of the relativistic effects of force increasing mass, contracting
space, and causing gravity, are all inter-related as one process.
Even though changes due to relativity are necessarily only relative, these are
still very real and observable changes which have been thoroughly validated. Such
intrinsic characteristics as the rate of atomic oscillations, the decay rate of particles, and the frequency of light, have all been shown to be changed by the relativistic
effects of velocity, and they are changed in exactly the same ways by gravity. (1,2,7)
So the effects of gravity can be seen to be comparable to the effects of relativistic velocity. And this is due to the fact that gravity is an acceleration like any other
acceleration, but gravity causes these relativistic changes without imparting velocities
near the speed of light, and even causes these relativistic changes when imparting zero
velocity (in stationary bodies).
Gravity itself should therefore have relativistic origins. And since gravity
and mass are proportional, then they could both have similar origins. And since
the strong force is thought to be responsible for most of the mass, and gravity is
proportional to mass, the relativistic effects in nucleons caused by the strong force must be
responsible for the formation of both mass and gravity, whether it imparts relativistic
motion directly, or whether this has an indirect cause. Either way, the interaction of the strong force between quarks and nucleons, by producing gluon particles, provides
the link between the relativistic formation of most mass, and the relativistic curvature
of space which is gravity.
Two unlike electromagnetic charges attract each other, having lines of force which
converge, while two like electromagnetic charges repel each other, having lines of
force which diverge. (5) If gravity were actually an attractive force, it seems
likely that its lines of force should converge like the attractive force of unlike electromagnetic
charges. But they do not. Similarly, there are ways to shield against the force
of electromagnetism, while there is no known method to shield against gravity. And this lack of shieldability as well as gravity's straight lines of force, are exactly
how gravity would behave if it is only a relativistic dimensional contraction surrounding
matter. Besides which, gravitons have never been found. So all of these facts are consistent with the supposition that gravity is an indirect result of relativistic
dimensional contraction, and are therefore also consistent with gravity not
being a separate force of nature.
3. Gravity and the Strong Force
The strong force is unusual in that it is weak when quarks are close together,
but increases dramatically as the quarks move away from each other, with the quarks
in nucleons interacting through a virtual cloud of gluons. (3) And in each nucleon
there are two quarks of like charge, and one of unlike charge. (3) So this combination of loose binding at close quarters, the stronger binding at
more distance, and the oppositely charged quarks, should allow quarks within each
proton and neutron to move toward each other due to the attraction of unlike charges,
and away from each other due to the repulsion of like charges. And this would cause changes
in the effective strength of the strong force between the various moving quarks.
So that their combined movements would contain various repeated movements or oscillations.
Most nuclei contain nucleon pairs of one proton and one neutron. And each partner
of a nucleon pair is composed of oppositely charged quarks, while each also is supposed
to have an opposite spin compared to its partner. (4) And so the attributes of the variable strength of the strong force, the opposite
charges of quarks, and the complimentarily charges of the quarks within protons and
neutrons, should encourage the opposite spins each nucleon partner is thought to
have.
Of particular interest in nucleon pairs, is that each of the partners is composed
of two quarks of one kind of charge and one quark of the other kind of charge. And
the other partner has a set of the oppositely charged quarks. So they are each unbalanced in both charge number and in the volume occupied by the opposite charges. This
means that regardless of their overall charge, both protons and neutrons should be
polar. And since partners of a nucleon pair are both spinning, they should then
each produce magnetic fields, which has indeed been observed for both particles. (5) And since these charges and thus the magnetic fields associated with each particle
are unbalanced, one magnetic field will be stronger than the other, with its opposite
having unbalanced magnetic fields of the opposite type. So the oscillations of the
quarks within a nucleon pair would result in two magnetic fields of alternating strength
and alternating charge. And these alternating magnetic fields should therefore amplify
the movements.
4. The Relativity of Speed
Since the strong force is the strongest force in nature, its large and variable
strength in combination with the oppositely charged quarks within nucleons and their
alternating magnetic fields, should be sufficient to supply the power movements comparable to the speed of light for such particles. Einstein said that high rates of motion
increase the mass and decrease the dimensions of a moving object, so that at a significant
percentage of the speed of light, the object would significantly increase in mass and decrease in size. (2) But actually moving at the speed of light causes an object with mass to develop
infinite mass, so that anything with mass would never be able to move at the speed
of light. (2) Small objects like subatomic particles however, can move at speeds near to the speed
of light. And when they do, their speed causes them to increase in mass, and to
decrease in size.
It might be considered to be impossible for nuclear particles to have a rate of
motion near to the speed of light, because sub-atomic particles have specific quantum
spin components. Since all of the particles which make up atoms are fermions, they
should each have half-spin components. (1) However, experiments have shown that quarks appear to exist as points or single
dimensional entities within nucleons, similar to electrons, (5) so the quarks that comprise protons and neutrons are most probably the fundamental
particles of hadrons.
Quarks then would appear to be the entities which carry the half-spin component usually attributed to protons and neutrons, especially since there
are always an uneven number of particles which make up protons and neutrons, even
when the other components of nucleons are considered, such as electrons and neutrinos.
And this means that protons and neutrons are not really particles at all, but are rather
composite systems composed of smaller moving parts, and which have differing internal
charges similar to atoms. Atoms are not considered to have quantum spin components
of their own. And since quarks can supply the required half-spin component, nucleons
could be considered to have movements of their own separate from a quantum spin component.
And so the oscillations of quarks relative to each other could be considered as the composite movements of nucleons, or the overall movement of the nucleons themselves.
The strong force interacting with the electromagnetic force would therefore provide
the energy for the oscillations of quarks with in nucleons, and these movements of
nucleons could be comparable to relativistic velocities, since nucleons could have
angular momentums separate from the quantum spin components. This scenario therefore
provides a possible mechanism for the strong force to be the cause of gravity.
5. Developing a Unifying Equation
Salam and Weinberg have shown that electromagnetism is related to the weak force,
and so together they should both be considered as components of the combined electroweak
force. (3, 4) And since gravity is not itself a separate force, this leaves only the electroweak
force and the strong nuclear force as the two forces of nature. So this new interpretation
of gravity combined with the Salam-Weinberg theory, allows for a new understanding of energy in general. As discussed earlier, the strong force probably interacts
with the electroweak force and thus causes most of mass and also gravity in atoms
through relativistic effects. And since atoms make up matter, and matter and energy
are interchangeable, (2) it is then possible for the major aspects of nature to be unified
into one equation.
Einstein related energy E and mass M by the speed of light C in his equation of
:
E = MC^2 . E3
And in his discussion of general relativity, he stated that the dimensions are inextricably
related to mass. (2,8) And since mass is present in his equation (2), then dimensions must be assumed to
be present. Einstein also showed that the spatial dimensions react oppositely to
mass in respect to relativistic effects as seen in equations E1 and E2. (2) So dimensions can be added as the compliment to mass as M/D. And thus, equation
E3 becomes :
E = MC^2/D . E4
Since gravity is here assumed to not
be a separate force of nature, energy E should be composed of only the electroweak
force Eew, and the strong force Esf. And if a proton's quarks could be isolated, they are thought to account for about
1.33 percent of a proton's mass, at a average value of 12.5 MeV (from a range of
6 to 19 MeV). (10) So the difference between the mass of the quarks of a proton
and the mass of a proton, is the amount of mass which is theoretically attributable to the
strong force through the accumulation and interaction of gluons. This means that
the strong force carried by gluons would increase the mass of protons from 12.5 MeV
to 938.28 MeV, which is a 75.0624 fold increase. The effect of the strong force which is
comparable to the relativistic effect of velocity, would therefore cause an increase
in mass and a contraction of the spatial dimensions of about 75 fold, which is a
reduction to about 1.33 percent of their former size.
Einstein gave the equation governing the contraction of space due to relativistic
effects as :
1/D = (1-V^2/C^2) (2) . E2
And by inserting 75.0624 as the value of D, it is evident that gravity as a spatial
contraction is caused by a relativistic effect comparable to about 99.99 percent
of the speed of light. And it would be this effect which causes the approximately
75 fold increase in nuclear mass which is most of the mass of atoms, and also causes the dimensions
of the nucleus to be reduced by the same 75 fold.
So equation E2 can be substituted for D in equation E4 or E5, revealing the relativistic
origins of mass and gravity :
E = MpC^2/D . E5
And this equation E5 shows that if nucleons are acted upon by the strong force imparting
motion which is comparable to a velocity of about 99.99 C, it causes a dimensional
contraction of D = (1-V2/C2) to about 1.33 percent of their former volume, increasing the mass of the fundamental
particles Mp to :
M = Mp/ (1-V^2/C^2) E6
The total quark mass of protons Mp at 12.5 divided by 0.01332 thus equals the observed mass of protons M, at 938.28
MeV.
Concurrently, since the dimensions are composed of space and time, with space
S reacting oppositely to time as far as relativistic effects are concerned, the relativistic
effects on space S and time T would be :
1/D = T/S = T/S (1-V^2/C^2) E7
which would expand the duration of the time dimension, causing it to slow by about
75 fold. But space consists of three dimensions, which is volume. And since helium
has two nucleon pairs, its volume of 10^-13 cm is reduced by about 75 fold. And since the volume of an atomic nucleus compared
to the volume of an atom are each proportional to the number of nucleons it contains,
this percentage remains essentially constant for all elements. (5) And so a relativistic contraction of the atomic nucleus would always be reduced by the same proportion
in all atoms. Therefore, the increase in mass of atoms due to the strong force would
always be proportional to the size of the dimensional contraction of their nuclei,
no matter what its composition. And this is why gravity is observed to be unaffected
by the composition of matter which causes the gravity.
6. Einstein's Equation for Gravity
In his equation for gravity :
Gab = (8 G/C^2) Tab E8
Einstein related his tensor for space-time curvature Gab, to the momentum-energy tensor Tab, by 8 G/C^2. So the factor which relates momentum and the curvature of space-time, is 8 times
Newton's gravitational constant G divided by the speed of light squared C^2.
In another of his equations :
Re =GM/3C^2 E9
Einstein shows that the excess radius Re of spatial curvature is related to Newton's gravitational constant G, times M as
momentum times the formula for the volume of a sphere, divided by 3, and divided
by the speed of light squared. So equation E8 and E9 both concern the curvature
of space-time, and they both contain G divided by C^2, as well as momentum in the two factors of M and Tab. But they differ by a factor of 3 times 8 , or 24 , and 24 equals 75.3982. So
the factor of D in the unified equation E4 can be compared to Einstein's gravitational
equation E8 where D equals 75.0624, and 24 equals 75.3982. It is therefore obvious
that these numbers are almost equal, being different by less than half of one percent.
The factor of 8 in Einstein's equation is therefore comparable to the relativistic
mass increase of the fundamental particles, where D equaling 75.0624 compares to
24 , and D/3 equaling 25.0208, compares to 8 .
Since the factor of D is an average and an approximation, while 8 is absolute,
8 is taken to be the correct number. And D is therefore set as being equal to 8 .
So the factor for dimensional contraction D equaling (1/C^2/V^2) and divided by 3, and can be substituted for 8 in Einstein's equation for gravity
(8), which then becomes :
Gab =DG/3C^2 Tab . E10
And this revised equation E10 then embodies the new concept of the gravitational constant
D, being equal to (1-V^2/C^2) as the relativistic contraction of space-time due to gravity. And D also equals
8 which equals 25.1327, thus revealing the relativistic origins of both 8 and D,
and also of gravity.
So the revised equation E10 then basically states that dimensional curvature is
related to momentum and therefore mass, by the relativistic gravitational factor
of D/3 times Newton's gravitational constant, divided by the speed of light squared.
And the effect in nucleons comparable to relativistic velocity which results in a contraction
of the spatial dimensions of D = (1-V^2/C^2) at a velocity V comparable to 99.99 percent of the speed of light, means that equations
E8 and E10 are equal, and therefore would still allow the revised equation to operate
just as Einstein had intended. But it also provides the additional information that 8 equals D/3, as the relativistic origins of both 8 and D, and therefore of
gravity. And since the factor of D causes the mass of the fundamental particles
to be increased by 75.3982 fold, this shows that the quarks of a proton must have
an original total mass of 12.4443, which is less than half of one percent different than the
recently derived average value of the total mass of a proton's quarks. (10)
This new theory for gravity can therefore be merged with Einstein's equation relating
matter and energy E3, to develop a general unified equation E4, which includes the
major facets of nature as energy in the form of the electroweak and the strong forces, matter as leptons and hadrons, and the contraction of the dimensions as gravity
as the factor D. And Einstein's equation for the relativistic effect of velocity
on dimensions E2, with an effect comparable to a velocity V of 99.99 percent of the
speed of light C, thus causes a contraction of the spatial dimensions of D = 75.3982, and
D/3 = 25.1327, as the cause of gravity. But the factor D may allow for a better
understanding of the basis for gravity, since the new gravitational factor of D/3
equaling 8 in equation E10, reveals the relativistic origins of gravity, since gravity has
been shown to be comparable to a relativistic effect. Thus, gravity which has appeared
to be a direct accelerative force, is shown instead to have an indirect cause, and
therefore must act entirely passively, causing a body of matter to merely follow the
path of least resistance which is a straight line in curved space-time.
7. The Gravity of Fundamental Particles
In his discussion of general relativity, Einstein observed that electrons produce
a small amount of gravity of their own, (2) which is another way of saying that anything
with mass produces gravity proportional to its mass. (1,2) However, since the initial mass of electrons is small, and since their mass is not effected by the strong
force, and also since their average velocity in atoms is estimated to normally be
about 10^-6 ms^-1, (9) there would be almost no change in their mass due to relativistic effects.
Since the strong force is generally considered to increase the mass of quarks,
and this increase has here been calculated to be at about 75.3982 fold, then the
original mass of quarks in protons would be 12.4443 MeV. And if protons and neutrons
have essentially the same forces acting upon them, their quarks would increase comparably
due to these same relativistic effects. Neutrons would thus seem to have an original
mass of around 12.4614 MeV. And so, the basic concept of the quarks of protons and
neutrons supplying an initial combined mass of about 24.9057 MeV, with the strong force
multiplying the mass of quarks by 75.3982 fold, by creation of virtual gluon clouds
to obtain the observed mass of nucleons, and this mass of 1,878.845 MeV plus the
mass of an electron at 0.511 MeV equaling 1,878.356 MeV, therefore seems to be in good
agreement with experimental results as well as our general understanding of nature.
And therefore about 1.356 percent of gravity would be produced by the fundamental
particles, and the balance would be produced by the relativistic effects of the strong force
increasing the mass of quarks in nucleons.
The unified equations E4 and E5 in the previous section however, incorrectly portrays
relativistic effects as increasing the mass of all
fundamental particles. So these equations must be revised in order to separate leptons
from hadrons, since leptons are generally accepted as not being effected by the strong
force. (1) The unified equation should therefore be revised to read :
E = (Ml+Mh/D) C^2 E11
which then would correctly show that the increase of mass due to the strong force
acts only on quarks in hadrons, whose mass would then be added to the mass of the
unaffected leptons, to equal the total observed mass of electrons plus nucleons.
And further, since neutrons can be formed by a proton's up quark combining with an electron
and an antineutrino to form a down quark, (9) then the neutron's mass would change
by only about 0.511, equaling 12.9553 (or possibly less, if an antineutrino essentially
has an anti-mass). And this is closer to the value calculated above, than the value
which has been obtained experimentally. (10) So the masses of up and down quarks
may be more similar than has been presumed. At any rate, if an up quark is comparable
to a down quark plus an electron and an antineutrino, then this would be consistent with
the conservation of electrical charge, and a set of an electron, a proton and a neutron
would therefore be comparable to four negative charges in four electrons, and four
positive charges in six up quarks. This would also mean that leptons would basically
be negatively charged, and up quarks as the fundamental particles of hadrons are
positively charged. And this could also explain why the strong force acts only on
hadrons, since it would be an attribute of positively charged particles with an effect only
over very short distances. And so the strong force could only effect leptons if
they are close by, as when they are absorbed to change a proton to a neutron.
8. Gravity in the Early Universe
It is the general consensus that at the beginning of the universe, only pure energy
existed, and then during the first fraction of a second of the universe's expansion,
fundamental particles are thought to have come into being. (6,11) And these were
followed quickly by the formation of protons and neutrons, and then much later were
followed by the formation of atoms. (6,11) But if gravity is basically caused by
relativistic increases in the mass of nucleons, then at the beginning of the universe
when there was no matter, there would have been little or no gravity. And slightly later
when there were only fundamental particles, there still would have only been about
1.33 percent of the present mass of matter, since the fundamental particles account
for only this amount of matter's mass. And so, fundamental particles would still have
produced very little gravity. Not until about 10-3 second when nucleons had formed, (6,11) would gravity have increased to its present
strength. And this means that at the beginning of the universe during its initial
inflationary period, there would have been very little gravity to slow down its expansion, since protons and neutrons would not yet have come into being.
Until now, a simple explanation for the initial inflationary period of the universe's
expansion has been lacking. But the absence of nuclear particles would have meant
that fundamental particles would initially have produced very little gravity when
the universe was just beginning to expand. So this would provide a simple mechanism
for an inflationary period which is thought to have occurred approximately during
the first second of the early universe. And if most mass and therefore most gravity
is produced as a by-product of the strong force's relativistic effect on protons and neutrons,
then protons and neutrons would have to come into existence before much gravity was
available to slow down the expansion of the early universe.
And this would then explain why the universe had an inflationary period during
which its diameter could have expanded up to about 300 kilometers (at the speed of
light) from time zero to about 10^-3 second of its early history, before the full effect of gravity started slowing down
its expansion. And since gravity would not have been produced in substantial amounts
until after the formation of nucleons, this scenario also supplies a mechanism for
the early inflationary period to end, and for the universe to then begin slowly reducing
the expansion rate to that which is observed today. Other hypotheses for overcoming
the gravity supposed to have existed in the early universe have been proposed. But
given an initial state of rapid expansion which is usually assumed for the beginning
of the universe, a natural lack of gravity renders these other explanations unnecessary
and overly complicated, since a lack of gravity in the early universe can provide
a simple solution for the period of inflation which is generally accepted to have occurred
in the early universe.
9. Conclusions
This theory of gravity proposes that the unique characteristics of the strong
nuclear force are comparable to a relativistic effect of motion near the speed of
light, causing an increase in mass and a reduction of spatial dimensions within the
atomic nucleus. And each atomic nucleus being separated by the relatively large empty space
within atoms, would then cause the contraction of the nucleus to be reduced before
it can effect other matter. And a collection of matter with each nucleon causing
a slight contraction of space, would produce an effect which would be additive and therefore
would be proportional to the amount of mass present, and would also be inversely
proportional to distance. This spatial contraction of nucleons would therefore be
the cause of the curvature of space which has been identified as the effect of gravity,
and is known to be additive, proportional to the mass, and inversely proportional
to the distance between gravitational bodies.
The effects of gravity are at any rate comparable to relativistic effects on such
things as the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation, nuclear decay, and time dilation,
even when gravity does not produce sufficient velocities to directly cause such effects. And so gravity must therefore have relativistic origins. And the strong
force is certainly strong enough to cause relativistic contractions, and thus cause
the curvature of space within atomic nuclei, which would then expand into the space
outside of each atom. And since atomic nuclei are normally isolated by the relatively large
volume of the atom compared to the nucleus, this indirectly cause the effect of gravity,
which would therefore necessarily be observed as being relatively weak.
So gravity would be entirely a field effect of interacting atoms and/or accumulations
of atoms, with the curvature of space acting as both the effect and
the intermediary. And gravity therefore can not be considered to be a true force
of nature, since it would not be transferred by quantum particles as are the electroweak
and the strong forces. But rather the strong force would act directly to relativistically increase mass and contract space-time, which would then act upon other matter
through the intermediary of curved space-time, with the overall effect of gravity
being passive and indirect. So gravitons which had been supposed to exist, then
would of course not exist, nor would there be any quantum gravity as such. And this would
explain why gravitons have never been observed, and would also explain how Einstein's
theory of general relativity has seemed to explain gravity without considering any
quantum effects, because it is correct in explaining gravity as only being a field effect.
And the breakdown of general relativity under extreme conditions such as in black
holes, does not invalidate general relativity per se, since none of the behaviors
of matter are really understood under these extreme conditions.
10. Summary
The new theory therefore proposes the following :
1) Gravity is due to the relativistic effects of the strong force causing increases
in mass and a comparable contraction of space in the atomic nucleus, diluted by the
greater atomic volume. And this is why Newton could show that gravity is proportional to mass, it is why Einstein could show that gravity is equivelent to the curvature
of space-time, and it is also why gravity causes relativistic effects without imparting
relativistic speeds, since these all have as their basis, the relativistic effects
produced by the strong force in nucleons,
2) The effects of the strong force are comparable to relativistic velocity at 99.99
percent of the speed of light, which increases the mass of quarks by a factor of
75.3982 by producing clouds of virtual gluons, and thus providing about 98.7 percent
of mass to matter.
3) Matter consists of electrons as the negative fundamental particles of leptons,
and up quarks as the positive fundamental particles of hadrons, with an electrical
charge of +2/3, and an original mass of 12.4443 MeV for the quarks in protons. And
since the strong force is carried by these positively charged fundamental particles and
effects of the strong force are confined to very short distances, electrons are not
effected by the strong force, and so their masses are not increased in this manner.
4) And since gravity is an indirect effect of the strong force, and is therefore
not a separate force, energy consists only of the electroweak force and the strong
force.
5) Einstein's equations E2 and E3 can therefore be combined with the concepts of
this theory, to form the following unified equation :
E = (Ml+Mh/D) C^2 E11
where E equals the electroweak and the strong forces, Ml equals the mass of leptons, Mh equals the mass of the fundamental up quark particles of hadrons, and D is the relativistic
factor for gravity equaling :
1/D = (1-V^2/C^2) . E2
6) Einstein's equation for gravity can also be revised as :
Gab = (DG/3C^2) Tab . E10
And since D equals 24 and 75.3982, and since D/3 equals 8 and 25.1327, D/3 exchanged
for 8 does not change Einstein's equation for gravity, except to reveal the relativistic
origins of the factor 8 , and of gravity.
7) This understanding of gravity being the result of the small initial mass of quarks
being multiplied by the effect of the strong force which is comparable to relativistic
velocity in nucleons, also suggests that the early universe would have had very little gravity before the formation of fundamental particles and nuclei. And this provides
a simple explanation for the inflationary period in the early universe, which would
have occurred due to the absence of gravity, and which would have ceased when most of gravity later came into being with the condensation of energy into protons and
neutrons.
8) This theory proposes that gravity is caused by effects of the strong force comparable
to relativistic velocity. And it therefore predicts that the correct mass for the
quarks in protons, is 12.444325 MeV. And since gravity is not a separate force,
the theory predicts that gravitons will never be found, since they do not exist. And
since gravity has relativistic origins, gravity should paradoxically cause relativistic
effects without causing relativistic velocities, and should even cause relativistic
effects in objects which have zero velocity in gravitational fields. It is therefore
significant that all of these predictions are consistent with observations of nature,
and also with experimental findings, at this time.
11. References
1 Loyd Motz and Jefferson Weaver, The Story of Physics
(Plenum Press, New York, 1989)
2 Albert Einstein, On the Special and the General Theory of Relativity
, Translated by Robert Lawson (Crown Publishers, New York, 1916)
3 Steven Weinberg, The Discovery of Subatomic Particles
(Scientific American Books, New York, 1983)
4 Steven Weinberg, Dreams of a Final Theory
(Pantheon Books, New York:, 1992)
5 Heinz Pagels, The Cosmic Code
(Simon and Schuster, New York, 1982)
6 John Seaborn, Understanding the Universe
(Springer, New York, 1997)
7 John Stewart, Advanced General Relativity
(Cambridge University Press, New York, 1993)
8 John Archibald Wheeler, A Journey into Gravity and Spacetime
(Scientific American Library, New York, 1987)
9 Paul W. Davies, The Forces of Nature
(Cambridge University Press, New York, 1986 )
10 C. Caso, et al., Review of Particle Physics,
Eur. Phys. Rev. J. C3
1 (Particle
11 John Gribbon Space Warps
(Delacorte Press, New York, 1983)
12 A. K. Raychandhuri Theoretical Cosmology
(Clarendon Press, New York, 1979)
13 Footnote : ^ means that the number following the ^ is an exponent.